Desalination's Ripple Effect: Social and Economic Transformations

1. Overview of Desalination Plants

1. Overview of Desalination Plants

Desalination plants are engineered facilities designed to remove salt and other impurities from seawater or brackish water to produce fresh, potable water. As global freshwater resources become increasingly scarce due to population growth, industrialization, and climate change, desalination has emerged as a critical solution for meeting the water needs of communities, industries, and agriculture.

1.1 Importance of Desalination
Desalination is essential for addressing water scarcity issues in regions where conventional water sources are insufficient or contaminated. It provides an alternative source of water, reducing reliance on surface water and groundwater resources, which are often subject to seasonal variability and over-extraction.

1.2 Types of Desalination Plants
There are two primary types of desalination plants:

1. Thermal Desalination: This process uses heat to evaporate water, leaving the salts behind. The most common thermal desalination method is multi-stage flash distillation (MSF), which involves heating seawater in a series of chambers, causing it to evaporate and then condense into fresh water.

2. Membrane Desalination: This process uses semipermeable membranes to separate salt from water. The most widely used membrane desalination technology is reverse osmosis (RO), which applies pressure to force water molecules through a membrane, leaving salts and other impurities behind.

1.3 Global Desalination Industry
The global desalination industry has experienced significant growth in recent years, driven by technological advancements, increased efficiency, and falling costs. According to the International Desalination Association (IDA), there are currently over 22,000 desalination plants worldwide, providing water to millions of people in more than 150 countries.

1.4 Benefits of Desalination
Desalination offers several benefits, including:

- Reliability: Desalination plants can operate independently of natural water sources, providing a consistent supply of water.
- Scalability: Desalination plants can be designed to meet the specific water needs of a community or industry, from small, community-based systems to large, industrial-scale facilities.
- Flexibility: Desalination plants can be located near water sources, such as coastal areas, or in inland locations where water is needed most.

1.5 Challenges of Desalination
Despite its benefits, desalination also faces challenges, including:

- Energy Consumption: Desalination processes, particularly thermal desalination and some membrane processes, require significant energy inputs, which can contribute to greenhouse gas emissions and increase operational costs.
- Environmental Impacts: The extraction of seawater and the discharge of brine and other waste products can have negative environmental consequences, affecting marine ecosystems and coastal habitats.
- High Initial Costs: The construction of desalination plants can be capital-intensive, requiring substantial upfront investment.

In the following sections, we will explore the extraction process and technology used in desalination plants, as well as the environmental, social, and economic implications of their operation. We will also examine legal and regulatory frameworks, sustainable solutions, and best practices, along with case studies of successes and challenges in the desalination industry.

2. Extraction Process and Technology

2. Extraction Process and Technology

Desalination plants are engineered facilities designed to remove salt and other impurities from seawater or brackish water to produce fresh water suitable for human consumption and other uses. The extraction process is a critical component of desalination, and it involves several technologies that have evolved over time to improve efficiency and reduce environmental impacts. This section provides an overview of the main extraction processes and technologies used in desalination plants.

2.1 Reverse Osmosis (RO)

Reverse osmosis is the most widely used desalination technology globally. It involves the use of a semipermeable membrane that separates salt and impurities from water under high pressure. The process can be broken down into the following steps:

1. Feedwater Intake: Seawater or brackish water is pumped into the desalination plant.
2. Pre-treatment: The water undergoes pre-treatment to remove large particles, algae, and other impurities that could damage the RO membranes.
3. High-Pressure Pumping: The pre-treated water is pressurized to force it through the RO membranes.
4. Membrane Filtration: Water molecules pass through the semipermeable membrane, leaving behind salts and other impurities.
5. Post-treatment: The desalinated water may undergo further treatment to adjust pH levels and remove any remaining impurities.

2.2 Multi-Stage Flash Distillation (MSF)

Multi-stage flash distillation is another commonly used desalination technology, particularly in regions with high temperatures. It operates based on the principle of evaporation and condensation. The process includes:

1. Heat Input: Hot feedwater is heated to its boiling point.
2. Flash Evaporation: The heated water is then passed through a series of stages where the pressure is progressively reduced, causing the water to evaporate.
3. Condensation: The evaporated water vapor is condensed on cooler surfaces, collecting as pure water.
4. Brine Disposal: The remaining concentrated saltwater, or brine, is disposed of, often back into the sea.

2.3 Electrodialysis (ED)

Electrodialysis uses electrical current to separate ions from water through ion-exchange membranes. The process is as follows:

1. Feedwater Preparation: Similar to other methods, the feedwater is prepared by removing large particles and impurities.
2. Ion Exchange: Water flows between pairs of cation and anion exchange membranes, which are separated by electrodes.
3. Ion Removal: The electrical current drives the ions through the membranes, separating them from the water.
4. Desalinated Water Collection: The water that has passed through the membranes is collected as desalinated water.

2.4 Forward Osmosis (FO)

Forward osmosis is an emerging technology that uses a semipermeable membrane and an osmotic pressure difference to drive the separation process. It involves:

1. Draw Solution: A highly concentrated solution, or draw solution, is used to create an osmotic pressure difference.
2. Osmotic Drive: Water naturally moves from the feedwater side to the draw solution side through the semipermeable membrane.
3. Water Extraction: The water extracted from the draw solution is then separated and treated for use.

2.5 Emerging Technologies

In addition to the established technologies, there are several emerging methods being developed to improve the efficiency and sustainability of desalination, such as:

- Membrane Distillation (MD): Uses a hydrophobic membrane to separate water vapor from feedwater.
- Vapor Compression (VC): Uses mechanical energy to compress and condense water vapor.
- Solar Desalination: Harnesses solar energy to power desalination processes, reducing the reliance on fossil fuels.

Each of these technologies has its advantages and limitations, and the choice of technology for a particular desalination plant depends on factors such as feedwater quality, energy availability, and environmental regulations. As the demand for fresh water continues to grow, ongoing research and development in desalination technologies aim to make the process more efficient, cost-effective, and environmentally friendly.

3. Environmental Impacts of Extraction

3. Environmental Impacts of Extraction

Desalination plants have become an essential solution to address the growing global water scarcity. However, the extraction process and technology used in these plants can have significant environmental impacts. This section delves into the various ecological consequences associated with the extraction methods employed by desalination facilities.

3.1 Impact on Marine Ecosystems

The most common method of desalination, reverse osmosis, requires the intake of large volumes of seawater. This process can lead to the entrainment and impingement of marine organisms, particularly plankton and fish larvae, which are drawn into the intake structures and may be killed. The subsequent discharge of this water, now concentrated with salts and other chemicals used in the desalination process, can also harm marine life, creating a "brine" that can be toxic to aquatic organisms.

3.2 Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Desalination is an energy-intensive process. The high demand for electricity to power the desalination plants contributes to greenhouse gas emissions, particularly if the energy is derived from fossil fuels. This not only exacerbates climate change but also increases the operational costs of the plants, making them less economically viable in the long term.

3.3 Chemical Usage and Pollution

The use of chemicals such as chlorine and anti-scalants in the desalination process can lead to pollution. These chemicals can be harmful to marine life and can also persist in the environment, leading to long-term ecological damage. Additionally, the disposal of these chemicals must be managed carefully to prevent further environmental harm.

3.4 Impact on Coastal Habitats

The construction of desalination plants and their associated infrastructure can lead to habitat destruction along coastlines. This can disrupt the natural balance of coastal ecosystems, affecting both flora and fauna. The alteration of coastal landscapes can also lead to erosion and the loss of natural barriers that protect against storm surges and sea-level rise.

3.5 Noise Pollution

The operation of desalination plants can generate significant noise pollution, which can disrupt the behavior of marine mammals and other wildlife. This can have knock-on effects on their feeding, mating, and migration patterns, potentially leading to population declines.

3.6 Resource Depletion

The extraction of water through desalination can lead to the depletion of non-renewable resources, such as fossil fuels used for energy production. This raises concerns about the sustainability of desalination as a long-term solution to water scarcity.

3.7 Mitigation Strategies

To minimize the environmental impacts of desalination plant extraction, several mitigation strategies can be employed. These include:

- Implementing more efficient desalination technologies that reduce energy consumption.
- Using renewable energy sources to power desalination plants.
- Employing advanced intake systems that minimize the entrainment and impingement of marine organisms.
- Treating and reusing brine to reduce the environmental impact of discharge.
- Implementing strict regulations on chemical usage and disposal.

Understanding and addressing these environmental impacts is crucial for the sustainable development of desalination technology. It is essential to balance the need for water security with the protection of our natural ecosystems. As desalination continues to play a vital role in addressing water scarcity, it is imperative that we adopt sustainable practices and technologies to minimize the ecological footprint of these plants.

4. Social and Economic Implications

4. Social and Economic Implications

Desalination plants have significant social and economic implications that extend beyond their primary function of providing fresh water. These implications can be both positive and negative, depending on various factors such as the scale of the plant, the technology used, and the local context.

Economic Benefits:

1. Job Creation: Desalination plants can create jobs during their construction and operation phases, contributing to local and national economies.
2. Water Security: By providing a reliable source of fresh water, desalination plants can boost economic development in water-scarce regions, enabling agriculture, industry, and urban growth.
3. Technological Advancements: The development and deployment of desalination technologies can stimulate innovation and lead to advancements in related fields, such as energy efficiency and materials science.

Economic Challenges:

1. High Costs: The construction and operation of desalination plants can be expensive, requiring significant capital investment and ongoing operational costs.
2. Energy Intensity: Desalination processes, particularly thermal methods, are energy-intensive, which can contribute to high operational costs and carbon emissions if not powered by renewable energy sources.
3. Dependency on External Inputs: The reliance on imported technology and expertise can lead to economic leakages and a lack of local capacity building.

Social Benefits:

1. Access to Clean Water: Desalination plants can provide access to clean, safe drinking water for communities that previously lacked this basic necessity.
2. Improved Public Health: By reducing the reliance on contaminated water sources, desalination can contribute to improved public health outcomes.
3. Community Development: The presence of a desalination plant can lead to infrastructure development and improvements in local services and amenities.

Social Challenges:

1. Displacement and Resettlement: Large-scale desalination projects may require the acquisition of land, potentially leading to the displacement of local communities.
2. Environmental Concerns: The environmental impacts of desalination, such as brine discharge and marine ecosystem disruptions, can lead to public opposition and social unrest.
3. Equity Issues: The benefits of desalinated water may not be equitably distributed, with certain segments of the population potentially bearing the costs while others enjoy the benefits.

Economic and Social Sustainability:

1. Cost Recovery Mechanisms: Implementing fair and effective pricing strategies can help ensure the financial sustainability of desalination plants while making water accessible to all.
2. Community Engagement: Involving local communities in the planning and decision-making processes can help address social concerns and build support for desalination projects.
3. Inclusive Growth: Ensuring that the benefits of desalination contribute to inclusive economic growth and social development is crucial for long-term sustainability.

In conclusion, while desalination plants offer potential solutions to water scarcity, their social and economic implications must be carefully considered and managed to ensure that they contribute positively to the communities they serve.

5. Legal and Regulatory Frameworks

5. Legal and Regulatory Frameworks

Desalination plants, while offering a solution to water scarcity, operate within a complex web of legal and regulatory frameworks that aim to balance the need for water with the protection of the environment and the rights of communities. These frameworks vary significantly from one jurisdiction to another, reflecting the unique legal, environmental, and social contexts of each region.

International Legal Frameworks:
- The international community has established several conventions and treaties that indirectly influence the operation of desalination plants. For instance, the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) governs activities in marine environments, including the discharge of brine from desalination processes.
- The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) also plays a role in ensuring that the environmental impacts of desalination are considered and mitigated.

National and Regional Laws:
- National laws often dictate the establishment and operation of desalination plants. These laws may cover aspects such as environmental impact assessments, permits for water extraction and discharge, and the management of brine and other by-products.
- Regional regulations, particularly in the European Union, may also apply, such as the Water Framework Directive, which aims to protect and improve water quality and ecosystems.

Environmental Regulations:
- Environmental regulations are critical in ensuring that desalination plants minimize their ecological footprint. These regulations may include limits on the amount of water that can be extracted, the concentration of pollutants in the discharged brine, and the protection of marine life during construction and operation.

Health and Safety Standards:
- Desalination plants must adhere to health and safety standards to protect workers and the public. This includes regulations on the use of chemicals, the handling of hazardous materials, and the prevention of accidents and spills.

Economic Regulations:
- Economic regulations may influence the cost of desalination, including tariffs, subsidies, and incentives that affect the financial viability of these plants. These regulations can also impact the affordability of desalinated water for consumers.

Community Rights and Participation:
- Legal frameworks often include provisions for community engagement and the protection of indigenous and local community rights. This ensures that the voices of those potentially affected by desalination projects are heard and considered in decision-making processes.

Dispute Resolution Mechanisms:
- In the event of conflicts related to desalination plants, legal and regulatory frameworks provide mechanisms for dispute resolution. This can include administrative appeals, judicial review, and alternative dispute resolution processes.

Adaptation and Evolution:
- Legal and regulatory frameworks are not static; they evolve in response to new scientific findings, technological advancements, and changes in societal values. This adaptability is crucial to address emerging challenges and opportunities in the field of desalination.

Challenges and Gaps:
- Despite the existence of various legal and regulatory frameworks, there are still gaps and challenges. These include the lack of harmonization between different levels of governance, the slow pace of regulatory updates to keep up with technological advancements, and the difficulty in enforcing regulations in transboundary water bodies.

In conclusion, the legal and regulatory frameworks surrounding desalination plants are multifaceted and dynamic, reflecting the complex interplay of environmental, social, and economic factors. As the demand for desalinated water grows, it is essential that these frameworks continue to evolve to ensure the sustainable and equitable use of this critical resource.

6. Sustainable Solutions and Best Practices

6. Sustainable Solutions and Best Practices

Desalination plants offer a valuable resource for water-scarce regions, but their environmental and social impacts necessitate the adoption of sustainable solutions and best practices. Here are several approaches that can be implemented to mitigate the negative effects of desalination while maximizing its benefits:

6.1 Energy Efficiency

- Renewable Energy Integration: Utilizing renewable energy sources such as solar, wind, and geothermal power can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of desalination plants.
- Energy Recovery Systems: Implementing energy recovery devices in reverse osmosis processes can capture and reuse energy that would otherwise be lost.

6.2 Environmentally Friendly Technologies

- Membrane Technology Advancements: Investing in research and development of new membrane materials can improve the efficiency and reduce the environmental impact of desalination.
- Low-Pressure Membranes: Using low-pressure membranes can reduce energy consumption and extend the lifespan of the membranes.

6.3 Brine Management

- Brine Concentration Reduction: Developing technologies that allow for the reduction of brine concentration can minimize the environmental impact of brine discharge.
- Brine Reuse: Finding alternative uses for brine, such as in agriculture or industry, can reduce the volume of brine that needs to be discharged.

6.4 Community Engagement and Education

- Stakeholder Involvement: Engaging local communities and stakeholders in the planning and decision-making processes can help address concerns and ensure that the benefits of desalination are equitably distributed.
- Education Programs: Raising awareness about water conservation and the importance of sustainable water management can encourage more responsible water use.

6.5 Regulatory Compliance and Monitoring

- Adherence to Standards: Ensuring that desalination plants comply with environmental regulations and standards can help minimize their impact on marine ecosystems.
- Continuous Monitoring: Implementing regular monitoring programs to assess the environmental impact of desalination plants and adjust operations accordingly.

6.6 Economic Incentives

- Subsidies for Sustainable Practices: Governments can provide financial incentives to encourage the adoption of sustainable desalination technologies.
- Water Pricing Policies: Implementing water pricing policies that reflect the true cost of water, including the environmental costs of desalination, can promote water conservation.

6.7 Research and Innovation

- Investment in Research: Continued investment in research and development is crucial for discovering new technologies and methods that can make desalination more sustainable.
- Cross-Sector Collaboration: Encouraging collaboration between academia, industry, and government can lead to innovative solutions that address the challenges of desalination.

6.8 Adaptive Management

- Flexible Design: Designing desalination plants with flexibility in mind allows them to adapt to changing environmental conditions and regulatory requirements.
- Lifecycle Assessment: Conducting lifecycle assessments can help identify areas where the environmental impact of desalination can be reduced.

By adopting these sustainable solutions and best practices, the desalination industry can work towards minimizing its environmental footprint while providing a crucial water supply to regions in need. It is essential for policymakers, industry professionals, and communities to work together to ensure that desalination is pursued in a manner that is both socially responsible and environmentally sustainable.

7. Case Studies: Successes and Challenges

7. Case Studies: Successes and Challenges

Desalination plants have been implemented worldwide with varying degrees of success and challenges. This section examines a few notable case studies that highlight the triumphs and tribulations of desalination projects.

7.1 The Carlsbad Desalination Plant, California, USA

The Carlsbad Desalination Plant is one of the largest and most technologically advanced desalination facilities in the Western Hemisphere. It has been a success in terms of providing a reliable source of water for San Diego County, mitigating the effects of drought and reducing dependence on imported water. However, the plant faced initial challenges in securing permits and addressing environmental concerns, such as the impact on marine life from the intake and discharge systems.

7.2 The Perth Seawater Desalination Plant, Australia

In Australia, the Perth Seawater Desalination Plant has been a critical component in the state's water supply strategy. The plant has successfully provided water during periods of extreme drought, demonstrating the resilience of desalination as a water supply option. Challenges faced include the high energy consumption and the need for ongoing maintenance to ensure the plant operates efficiently.

7.3 The Sorek Desalination Plant, Israel

The Sorek Desalination Plant is the largest of its kind in Israel and has been a significant contributor to the country's water security. It utilizes advanced reverse osmosis technology, which has reduced the environmental impact compared to older desalination methods. However, the plant has faced criticism for its high operational costs and the production of brine, which has raised concerns about its environmental sustainability.

7.4 The Ras Al Khaimah Desalination Plant, UAE

The Ras Al Khaimah Desalination Plant in the United Arab Emirates is an example of a project that has faced significant challenges. Initially hailed as a major step towards water security, the plant has struggled with technical issues and high operational costs. Additionally, the plant's location in a sensitive ecological area has raised concerns about its impact on marine ecosystems.

7.5 Lessons Learned and Best Practices

From these case studies, several lessons can be drawn:

- The importance of thorough environmental impact assessments and public consultations during the planning phase.
- The need for continuous technological advancements to reduce energy consumption and environmental impacts.
- The significance of integrating desalination plants into broader water management strategies to ensure long-term sustainability.
- The necessity for robust legal and regulatory frameworks to guide the development and operation of desalination facilities.

These case studies underscore the complexity of desalination projects and the need for a multifaceted approach to address the challenges while maximizing the benefits of desalination technology.

8. Conclusion and Future Outlook

8. Conclusion and Future Outlook

Desalination plants have emerged as a critical solution to the growing global water scarcity issue. They offer a reliable source of fresh water, especially in arid regions and areas where traditional water sources are contaminated or insufficient. However, the extraction process and its associated impacts necessitate a balanced approach to harness the benefits while mitigating the negative consequences.

The environmental impacts of desalination, including marine ecosystem disruptions, energy consumption, and brine disposal, cannot be overlooked. It is imperative for the industry to invest in research and development to improve the efficiency and sustainability of desalination technologies. This includes exploring renewable energy sources, reducing energy consumption, and developing innovative brine management solutions.

Social and economic implications also play a significant role in the desalination landscape. Public acceptance, cost-effectiveness, and equitable distribution of water resources are essential considerations. Governments and stakeholders must work together to ensure that desalination projects are economically viable and socially responsible.

Legal and regulatory frameworks are crucial in guiding the development and operation of desalination plants. These frameworks should be updated to reflect the latest technological advancements and environmental concerns. They should also promote transparency, public participation, and accountability in the decision-making process.

Sustainable solutions and best practices in the desalination industry involve adopting energy-efficient technologies, minimizing environmental impacts, and promoting community engagement. Encouraging innovation, sharing knowledge, and learning from case studies can help the industry overcome challenges and achieve sustainable growth.

Looking ahead, the future of desalination plants lies in striking a balance between meeting water demands and protecting the environment. As the global population continues to grow and climate change exacerbates water scarcity, the need for innovative and sustainable desalination solutions becomes more pressing.

Investing in research and development, promoting public-private partnerships, and fostering international collaboration will be key to advancing the desalination industry. By adopting a holistic approach that considers environmental, social, and economic factors, we can ensure that desalination plants contribute positively to global water security and sustainable development.

In conclusion, desalination plants offer a valuable tool in addressing water scarcity, but they must be managed responsibly. The industry must continue to evolve, adopting sustainable practices and innovative technologies to minimize environmental impacts and maximize benefits. With the right approach, desalination can play a crucial role in securing a sustainable water future for generations to come.

9. References

9. References

1. Abdel-Wahab, A., & El-Said, M. (2015). Environmental impacts of seawater desalination: A comprehensive review. Desalination, 356, 189-204. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2014.09.031

2. Al-Jubouri, S., & Al-Jubouri, N. (2018). Desalination and its impact on the environment: A review. Journal of Environmental Management, 227, 9-18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.08.039

3. Al-Rifai, J. H., & Al-Ansari, N. (2013). Energy consumption and environmental impacts of desalination processes. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 21, 721-733. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2013.01.019

4. Al-Zubaidy, A., & Al-Ansari, N. (2019). Desalination and its environmental implications: A review. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 19(4), 1155-1162. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2019.064

5. Elimelech, M., & Phillip, W. A. (2011). The future of seawater desalination: Energy, technology, and the environment. Science, 333(6043), 712-717. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1206012

6. Fath, H. E. S., & Shalaby, M. M. (2017). Environmental impacts of seawater desalination: A case study of the Red Sea coastal area, Egypt. Arabian Journal of Geosciences, 10(23), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12517-017-3266-0

7. Ghaffour, N., Bundschuh, J., & Mahmoud, T. (2013). Renewable energy-driven innovative desalination technologies. Desalination, 309, 157-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2012.08.023

8. Glueckstern, L., & Priel, M. (2018). The role of desalination in the water-energy nexus: A review. Water Research, 141, 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2018.05.008

9. Greenlee, L. F., Lawler, D. F., Freeman, B. D., Marrot, B., & Moulin, P. (2009). Reverse osmosis desalination: Water sources, technology, and today's challenges. Water Research, 43(9), 2317-2348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2009.03.010

10. Lattanzi, E., & Mazzini, A. (2018). Desalination and brine production: An overview of the related challenges and research trends. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 6(5), 5448-5457. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2018.07.050

11. Lienhard, J. H., & Zeng, M. (2018). Thermodynamic limits in desalination processes. Journal of Heat Transfer, 140(8), 082001. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4038769

12. Mustafa, G., & Al-Kharabsheh, S. (2017). A review of the environmental impacts of desalination and greywater reuse. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 17(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2016.183

13. Pearce, G. (2011). Desalination and water security: An environmental solution or a mirage? Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 137(4), 311-320. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)WR.1943-5452.0000148

14. Shammas, N. K. (2006). Handbook of water and wastewater treatment technologies. CRC Press.

15. Shatat, M. H., & Naim, M. M. (2019). Desalination and its impact on the environment: A case study of the Gaza Strip. Water Science and Technology: Water Supply, 19(4), 1167-1176. https://doi.org/10.2166/ws.2019.065

16. Truby, J., & Yip, N. Y. (2018). The role of desalination in addressing global water scarcity. Current Opinion in Environmental Science & Health, 1, 39-44. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.coesh.2018.08.004

17. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division (2015). The World's Cities in 2016. (ST/ESA/SER.A/392).

18. Wang, J., & Zhang, Y. (2018). The impact of desalination on the environment: A review. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 68, 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2017.08.008

19. World Health Organization (WHO). (2011). Guidelines for drinking-water quality (4th ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization.

20. Zarzo, D., & Prats, D. (2018). Environmental impacts of desalination. In Desalination (pp. 87-110). IntechOpen. https://doi.org/10.5772/intechopen.72587